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The U.S. Department of Energy was created in 1977 by merging two agencies with different missions: the Atomic Energy Commission, which developed, tested and maintained the nation’s nuclear weapons, and the Energy Research and Development Administration, a collection of domestic energy research programs.

Today the department describes itself, with what some might call understatement, as “one of the in the Federal government.” Its annual budget of supports some .

The secretary of energy advises the president on energy policy and guides energy and nuclear weapons production initiatives. As researchers who study and and who work with the Energy Department, we have seen that its secretary needs to be able to think long-term and make strategic decisions, sometimes with incomplete information. A good grasp of science, engineering and energy technology is helpful, as are the abilities to lead a large organization and to work with Congress.

Scientific research and development

The Energy Department’s supports a large portion of basic U.S. scientific research, including fusion energy, particle physics, chemistry and material science. Together with the agency’s , the agency manages a research portfolio with a budget of roughly $12 billion – nearly as large as that of the U.S. National Science Foundation, the other major federal funder of basic research.

Many energy secretaries have made their greatest marks by supporting and directing research. For example, during the first Trump administration, recognized potential cyber-terrorism risks to U.S. energy infrastructure and supported research in artificial intelligence. This led to the creation of the agency’s .

, who led the department from 2009 to 2013 under former President Barack Obama, initiated the , a division that focuses on new, cutting-edge energy innovations at stages too early to attract private-sector investment. ARPA-E projects have led to the creation of over 100 new companies and to over 1,000 patents on a , including hybrid-electric aircraft, carbon dioxide capture from the air and .

Most recently, during the Biden administration, focused on working with business and industry to deploy clean energy technologies in support of U.S. climate goals. has included offering grants, loans and rebates, filling gaps in supply chains, and promoting domestic manufacturing of components such as advanced batteries and solar panels.

Research payoffs

Much of the research that the Energy Department funds can take years to produce results with commercial applications, but it has had some notable successes.

Since the late 1970s, the agency has invested significantly in shale oil research. Combined with additional research and development by private energy companies, the Energy Department helped develop . These technologies have revolutionized petroleum and natural gas production and made the U.S. the world’s largest and .

Energy Department funding supported the commercialization of , which are highly efficient and long-lasting. It also has enabled breakthroughs in other , solar and wind energy production, battery technology, and geothermal and wave energy. The agency provides critical support for research on , which promises to be a clean and abundant source of energy, although it is .

There also are large swaths of U.S. energy policy that the Energy Department doesn’t control. For example, leases and permits for energy production and are awarded by the .

The , an independent agency, controls the siting of oil and natural gas pipelines and interstate electricity transmission lines. Another independent agency, the , licenses and regulates the nuclear power industry.

Still, energy secretaries often champion broad strategies that overlap with the mission and authority of other federal departments and agencies.

Nuclear weapons and national security

The Energy Department’s other mission – developing and maintaining nuclear weapons – is steered by the , a semi-autonomous agency within the department. Organizationally, the NNSA is the great-grandchild of the – the post-World War II incarnation of the Manhattan Project that developed the first U.S. atomic weapons.

The NNSA is headed by who also serves as undersecretary of energy for nuclear security, a Senate-confirmed position. When the energy secretary’s background is in domestic energy – like , President-elect Trump’s choice to head the agency – the leader of the NNSA is likely to be especially influential on national security issues.

Of the Energy Department’s , three – , and – are officially overseen by the NNSA. Others receive significant NNSA funding and play roles in maintaining the U.S. nuclear arsenal.

The NNSA also oversees and other sites involved in the . It is responsible for storing and securing warheads that are not deployed at military installations, and for dismantling retired warheads.

A separate office, , oversees the cleanup of nuclear research and production sites, some of which have contamination . The , it consumes about $8 billion annually – one-sixth of the agency’s entire budget. It handles large amounts of radioactive wastes, spent nuclear fuel, excess plutonium and uranium, and contaminated facilities, soil and groundwater.

The NNSA plays a critical role in and the materials and technologies needed to make them. It is part of the intelligence community with deep technical expertise, and responds to nuclear and radiological threats globally.

Finally, the NNSA designs and supports the around the globe.

Historically, the NNSA administrator has had a great deal of autonomy. Most administrators bring deep technical and policy expertise to the job. Some are retired Navy or Air Force officers who have worked with nuclear weapons or naval propulsion systems. Others are researchers with long tenures at Department of Energy laboratories.

Aging weapons, sites and workers

The next energy secretary and NNSA administrator will face major technical, economic and management challenges. The NNSA has been working for years to , which is aging and underfunded. At the same time, the Energy Department is working with the Defense Department to – bombers, ballistic missiles and submarines – to deter threats from other nations. This effort over several decades.

Many of the NNSA’s major modernization projects are . The U.S. Government Accountability Office recently reported that the NNSA in order to control costs and successfully execute these expensive initiatives.

The incoming administration will also have to for nuclear security programs. Many retirement-eligible employees have already left the agency. over the next four years, often drawn by private-sector salaries and perceived better working conditions.

While the Energy Department touts its high-tech laboratories and research facilities, the agency’s people are equally critical to its mission.

This story is part of a of Cabinet and high-level administration positions.

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